Freezing of gait (FOG) in Parkinson's disease (PD) causes severe patient burden despite pharmacological management. Exercise and training are therefore advocated as important adjunct therapies. In this meta-analysis, we assess the existing evidence for such interventions to reduce FOG, and further examine which type of training helps the restoration of gait function in particular. The primary meta-analysis across 41 studies and 1,838 patients revealed a favorable moderate effect size (ES -0.37) of various training modalities for reducing subjective FOG-severity (p < 0.00001), though several interventions were not directly aimed at FOG and some included non-freezers. However, exercise and training also proved beneficial in a secondary analysis on freezers only (ES -0.32, p = 0.007). We further revealed that dedicated training aimed at reducing FOG episodes (ES -0.24) or ameliorating the underlying correlates of FOG (ES -0.40) was moderately effective (p < 0.01), while generic exercises were not (ES -0.14, p = 0.12). Relevantly, no retention effects were seen after cessation of training (ES -0.08, p = 0.36). This review thereby supports the implementation of targeted training as a treatment for FOG with the need for long-term engagement.

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